Paul R Preston

Graduate Student, Archaeology

Thesis Title: Lithics to Landscapes: Hunter-Gatherer tool use, resource exploitation, and mobility during the Mesolithic of Northwest England.

Supervisor: Prof. Nick Barton

About

I am currently in the final stages of completing a D.Phil. in Archaeology, at the Donald Baden Powell Quaternary Research Centre, University of Oxford. I am also an associate lecturer at the Department of Anthropology & Geography, School of Social Sciences & Law, and Oxford Brookes University where I have most recently been teaching a module in an introduction to prehistoric archaeology.

My research interests focus on chipped stone tool technology, tool using behaviour and raw materials exploitation. Associated with this I am interested in Palaeolithic & Mesolithic hunter-gatherer behaviour within the landscape and how technology played a role in mobility. I am also therefore interested in the origins of agriculture, Hominin archaeology, evolution and palaeontology (particularly cognitive abilities and early tool technology).

DOCTORAL RESEARCH

My Doctoral research concerns aspects of Mesolithic lithic tool use and landscape in the Central Pennines. It explores human behaviour in post-glacial upland landscapes through the comparative study of Mesolithic chipped stone artefacts. I have chosen to combine traditional typological and technological methods for studying lithics with more innovatory approaches, the latter concentrating on documenting individual artefact life histories (i.e. Chaînes Opératoires), and linking this information with site mapping and other attributes using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Specifically, this thesis examines how Mesolithic lithic technology provides direct, yet often neglected, information about the postglacial hunter-gatherer mobility strategies. Drawing on new lithic analyses of unpublished and little known, yet significant, Mesolithic chipped stone assemblages from the Central Pennines, the author describes some of the apparent decisions (revealed by the lithic data) that were made by the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in the Central Pennines. For example, why they chose particular locales or sites, repeatedly visited sites and used them as resource caches. Amongst other things, the thesis will consider explanations for these caches, mobility behaviour as well as raw material consumption and tool manufacture. Key to this study is the notion of ‘Equipotentiality’ (Preston 1999, In press) which is derived from the biological term ‘Exaption’ (Gould and Vrba 1982) and its role in the Chaîne Opératoire model of lithics analyses. The implications of Equipotential tool use are explored in relation to hunter-gatherer mobility strategies along with other processes such as retooling (e.g. Hoffman 1992) or re-sharpening.

THE RESEARCH AREA AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The area selected for this study is the Central Pennines and the adjacent Northeastern end of the Mersey basin covering Lancashire, West Yorkshire, Northern Derbyshire, and Greater Manchester. The Central Pennines are defined as the millstone grit area south of the Aire Gap (near Skipton) and north of Longdendale in the Peak district (Barnes 1982). The area chosen for the research has exceptionally high and proven archaeological potential. According to John Wymer’s Gazetteer (Wymer and Bonsall 1977), the Sites Monuments Record (SMR), and National Monuments Records (NMR) there are over 900 ‘sites’, find-spots and extensive collections of Mesolithic chipped stone artefacts from the Central Pennine region. Davies (1943) also highlighted over 60 Mesolithic sites in the Rochdale area alone that she suggested would repay further investigation. Roger Jacobi (pers com) and Paul Mellars (pers com) have both stated that the sites in this region warrant further attention both individually and on a landscape level.

Despite early work in the Central Pennines by Buckley (e.g. 1921; 1924; 1939) and later by Stonehouse (e.g. 1987; 1994; 2001), this area has largely been neglected from the point of view of Mesolithic studies. The few notable exceptions include the work of Spikins (e.g. Spikins 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998) but this focused on a very limited area, while other work has been restricted to only a very small sample of sites (e.g. Jacobi 1978b; Mellars 1976). For historical and other reasons attention has tended to focus on other parts of Britain with areas like the Vale of Pickering (Clark 1954; Conneller 2005, 2007; Mellars and Dark 1998; Milner 2007; Schadla-Hall 1987, 1989) receiving the lion’s share of archaeological interest and funding. Despite this recent dearth of study it is interesting to note that the Central Pennines has nevertheless continued to feature prominently in models relating to Mesolithic mobility (e.g. Clark 1972; Donahue and Lovis 2003, 2006a, 2006b; Jacobi 1978b; Legge and Rowley-Conwy 1988). Moreover no one since Harrison (1896) has attempted to study all the sites located the Central Pennine landscape as a whole, until now.

My thesis aims to redress this imbalance and turn attention once again to the very large archive of sites in the Central Pennines area. It is based on a review of the ‘grey literature’ as well as primary analysis of flint collections. At its core is the study of the major artefact holdings in the Littleborough Historical and Archaeological Society (LHAS) collections. Most of these sites remain unsatisfactorily or only partly described. They are nonetheless key sources of information. In addition to information held in the National Monuments Record (NMR) and, various Sites and Monuments Records (SMR) and the Mesolithic Gazetteer (Wymer and Bonsall 1977), a range of unpublished and published sources were consulted that lie scattered in local museums. In particular I had access to a number of primary archives including the original field notes of LHAS (LHAS 1972, 1976), Francis Buckley (1921-1948) and Pat Stonehouse (1967-1997) amongst others. Access to a number of other early papers and manuscripts proved to be fruitful including Buckley’s private publications (Buckley 1921, 1924), his newspaper articles (Buckley 1923a, 1923b), Petch’s (1924) Early Man in the district of Huddersfield, and Roth’s (1906) site summaries. Other reports by Raistrick (Raistrick 1933, 1964), Law and Horsfall (1882, 1888), March (1881, 1887, 1894), and Davies (1881) were also instructive.

I was also able to integrate new information on lithic raw materials and their geological sources based on my macroscopic attributes analyses, geochemical data (Evans et al. 2007; Wolframm 2006), and material descriptions from Hind (1998), Conneller (1996, 1999, 2005), Myers (Myers 1986, 1989), Radley (1968) and various other researchers (e.g. Ford 2000; Orme 1974; Sargent 1921).

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. To record and document the Mesolithic lithic industries of the Central Pennines.

One of the main purposes of this research is to provide the first systematic study of flint collections from the Central Pennines and to provide an up-to-date database of Central Pennine Mesolithic sites and their chipped stone artefacts. The available resource in museum and private collections provides an excellent foundation for this study. I will also draw upon the limited radiocarbon dating evidence available for sites in the area.

2. To provide a framework for research into the Mesolithic of northern England.

To do this I shall provide a newly defined protocol, and attributes for lithic analyses that will allow a standardised approach to studying the Mesolithic. At the moment there are a number of competing lithics methodologies and no standardised nomenclature or way of analysing lithic assemblages akin to those employed for example in the Near East, where the Wembach lithics analytical module is commonly used (Baird et al. 1995; Rollefson 1994, 1995). Using similar approaches I shall be able to elucidate mobility patterns, tool use, resource procurement and consumption strategies of the Mesolithic hunter-gatherer’ in my research area. Specifically, I shall utilise the Chaîne Opératoire approach to Mesolithic tool use and raw material exploitation in relation to testing mobility models.
3. To investigate the human uses of landscape in the Mesolithic.

I will employ GIS approaches to elucidate spatial patterns in artefact distributions in the landscape. The approach will build upon previous small-scale GIS and quaternary studies (Crofts 2005; Spikins 1999; 2000; Williams 1985). One of the aims will be to test some of the ideas proposed by Barton (1995) for individual sites but not applied so far at a regional scale.

Linked to each of these aims I shall seek to answer the following questions:

* How has previous scholarship and in particular the existing lithics methodologies influenced our interpretations today?

* How do we make sense of the Mesolithic record as it currently stands and with few reliable radiocarbon dates?

* How did the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers exploit and move around in the landscape? Did the geography of the Pennine region serve to concentrate resources and hence hunter -gatherer activity?

* Were Mesolithic sites focused on any particular landmarks or natural features in the landscape? That is, were they associated with prominent landmarks or handrail features such as crags, conical hills, and Cloughs? And were there clearly perceptible transit routes through/over this part of the Pennines?

* Can the source of lithic raw materials be used to infer a direction of movement across the Pennines? Would a raw material fall off model provide support for this idea?

* Did the distance from the source influence tool manufacture and use? How were the raw materials transported: as nodules, blocks, cores or blades (blanks) and what does this tell us about mobility?

* Is there any evidence of curation and retention, conserving of resources, economising strategies, or equipotential tool use? That is, does the raw material influence how the tools were used and reused, and transported? What does this tell us about mobility?

* Is there any evidence for site furniture such as tent structures, table stones, built hearths, lithic caches, and if so, did this mean that sites were re-visited?

* On a broader scale, did the mobility strategies change between the early and late Mesolithic? And were there any changes through time in raw material consumption, and tool use and manufacturing behaviour? Were specific materials preferred for certain tools?

METHODS OF STUDY

In order to answer the questions referred to above a basic and agreed frame of reference is clearly required. This may seem at first to be unproblematic but in fact there is still much disagreement over even primary concepts in Mesolithic studies and if higher order interpretations are to be attempted, it is essential that these be underpinned by securely founded principles. It is also true that until relatively recently theoretical approaches concerning materiality, social meanings, agency etc. (e.g. Cobb et al. 2005; Conneller and Warren 2006) have hardly featured in publications on the Mesolithic possibly because the basic frame of reference has not permitted these higher order interpretations.

Underpinning my theoretical ideas are four main building blocks that can be divided heuristically into the following:

1. A broadly agreed definition of the period,

2. an explicit delineation of my unit(s) of study (e.g. site, assemblage),

3. an established calibrated chronology, and

4. an agreed protocol for lithics analysis.

Point 1 is addressed in chapter 1 and descriptive catalogue 1. I critique previous work and examine its impact on how we perceive the Mesolithic today. Indeed, previous interpretations have often gone unquestioned and without any consideration of the theoretical milieu of when they were made. This has resulted in misapprehensions and biased definitions that are incompatible with our current evidence. Thus, I provide a new and hopefully more reliable definition of the Mesolithic.

I define site and associated attributes in chapter 2 and in the descriptive catalogue (10). My conclusions tie in a definition of site (as a place where artefacts are found), taking into consideration how the site formed, with the more dynamic notion of revisiting sites periodically (Barton et al. 1995). This would therefore provide a contrast with the more 'static' definition of a site and allow the theoretical integration of the concepts previously viewed as polemic by different schools of thought: that is the site as a singular place with the opposite view of multiple site-landscape approaches (e.g. Foley 1981a, 1981b; Thomas 1975).

Point 3 is dealt with in Chapter 4. Chronological problems have bedevilled Mesolithic studies up until now. This has sometimes led to the concept of ‘good’ dates and ‘bad’ dates yet there is no real understanding or agreement over what these actually mean in an objective sense. In chapter 4 and descriptive catalogue 2, I propose a method of quality control based on the studies of other periods (e.g. Pettitt et al. 2003; Renfrew 1973; Tolan-Smith 2008; Waterbolk 1971). Using these approaches, I have tested and compared the dates from the research area with a regularly cited sample-control group of measurements from elsewhere. Establishing which ones are reliable and combining this information with other data have allowed me to propose a much clearer chronology for the Mesolithic of my region. This also has implications for understanding the Mesolithic as a whole.

Point 4 concerns a protocol for lithics analysis. This is discussed in chapter 3 and in the descriptive catalogue (3 to 7). Again, starting with existing definitions (e.g. inter alia Clark 1932; Finlayson et al. 1996; Jacobi 1978a; Palmer 1977) , I build on ideas of other authors (e.g. Andrefsky 1998; Baird et al. 1995; Inizan et al. 1992; Odell 2003; Rollefson 1994, 1995) and add my own suggestions concerning the Chaîne Opératoire technique (Leroi-Gourhan 1943). I apply these new approaches to my study sample that consists of over 150 assemblages from the Littleborough Historical and Archaeological Society collections. In particular, I then concentrate specifically on 10 of these locations in which will form detailed case studies on which to test my ideas.

OVERVIEW

My thesis hopefully will provide a narrative of human behaviour in postglacial upland landscapes through documenting the individual artefact life histories (i.e. Chaîne Opératoire) of the chipped stone tools. Specifically, it considers how archaeologists can move from static site based lithic data to a more dynamically landscape based view. It shows how both positive feedback loops on Chaîne Opératoire by mechanisms such as equipotentiality influence both the morphology of chipped stone tools and mobility.

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